Drugs

•Our brain is protected by a layer of capillaries called the blood-brain barrier; drugs that are small enough to pass through are called psychoactive drugs
Drugs are either,

• Agonists
• Antagonists
• Reuptake inhibitors

If a drug is used often, a tolerance is created for the drug.

Thus you need more of the drug to feel the same effect.

If you stop using a drug you can develop withdrawal symptoms

Stimulants:

• Speed up body processes
• More powerful ones (like cocaine) give people feelings of invincibility

Depressants:

• Slows down body processes
• Alcohol
• more than 86 billion dollars are spent annually on alcoholic beverages
• involved in 60% of ALL crimes
• involved in over 70% of sexually related crimes
• Anxiolytics (barbiturates and tranquilizers)
• Opiates:
• Has a depressive and hallucinogenic quality
• Agonist for endorphins
• Derived from poppy plant
• Morphine, heroin, methadone, and codeine, all these drugs cross the placental barrier to teratogens

Examples of Memory, Learning, and Sleep

Short Term and Long Term Memory

 Classical Conditioning

                                                Sleep Disorders

Memory, Learning, and Sleep

- persistence of learning over time through storage and retrieval of information

• Encoding: processing of information into the memory system
• Storage: retention of encoded material over time
• Retrieval: process of getting the information out of the memory storage

Recall v.s. Recognition -

• Recall: you must retrieve the information from memory (fill-in-the-blank tests)
• Recognition: you must identify the target from possible targets (multiple-choice tests)

Flashbulb Memory: clear moment of an emotionally significant moment or event
3 Types of Memory:

1. Sensory Memory: immediate, initial recording of sensory information in memory system; stored just for an instant, and most get unprocessed
2. Short-Term Memory: memory that holds only a few items briefly; 7 digits (plus of minus 2); information will be stored into long-term memory or forgotten
• Working Memory: another word of describing the use of short term memory; 3 parts: audio, visual, and integration of audio and visual (controls where your attention lies)
3. Long-Term Memory: relatively permanent and limitless store house of the memory system

Encoding:

• Automatic Processing - unconscious encoding of incidental information; you encode space, time, and word meaning without effort; things can become automatic with practice
• Effortful Processing - encoding that requires attention and conscious effort; rehearsal is most common effortful processing technique; through enough rehearsal, what was effortful becomes automatic
• The Next-in-Line Effect: we seldom remember what the person has just said or done if we are next
• Spacing Effect: encode better when we study or practice overtime; DO NOT CRAM!!
• Serial Positioning Effect: our tendency to recall best the last and the first items in a list
• Semantic Encoding: encoding of meaning, like the meaning of words
• Acoustic Encoding: encoding of sound, especially the sound of words
• Visual Encoding: encoding of picture images
• Tricks to Encoding - imagery: mental pictures; Mnemonic Devices use imagery, "peg word system"
• Chunking: organizing items into familiar manageable units; often it will occur automatically

Long-Term Memory:

1. Explicit (declarative): with conscious recall
• Facts - general knowledge ("semantic memory")
• Personally - experience with events ("episodic memory")
2. Implicit (non declarative): without conscious recall; routine
• Skills - motor and cognitive
• Classical and Operant - conditioning effects

Types of Retrieval Failure:

• Proactive Interference - disruptive effect of prior learning on the recall of new information
• Retroactive Interference - disruptive effect of new learning on the recall of old information
• Motivated Forgetting: repression, basic defense mechanism that banishes anxiety-arousing thoughts, feelings, and memory
• Misinformation Effect: incorporating misleading information into one's memory of an event
• Example: depiction of an accident

Learning:

• Associative Learning - learning that certain events occur together
• Classical Conditioning:
• Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS): a stimulus that naturally and automatically triggers a response
• Unconditioned Response (UCR): undeterred,naturally occurring response to the UCS
• Conditioned Stimulus (CS): an originally irrelevant stimulus that, after association with the other UCS,comes to trigger a response
• Conditioned Response (CR): the learned response to a previously neutral stimulus
• Ivan Pavlov
1. Acquisition - initial stage of learning; phase where neutral stimulus is associated with UCS so that neutral stimulus comes to elicit the CR (thus becoming CS)
2. Extinction - diminishing of a conditioned response;eventually happens when UCS doesn't follow CS
3. Spontaneous Recovery - reappearance; after a rest period,of an extinguished conditioned response
4. Generalization - tendency, once a response has been conditioned, for stimulus simliar to the CS to elicit
5. Discrimination - learned ability to distinguish between CS and other stimlus that does not signal UCS
• Operant Conditioning: learner is NOT passive; learning is based on consequences; type of learning in which behavior is strengthen if followed by reinforcement or diminished if followed by punishment

- classical vs operant: both use the "5"; classical conditioning is automatic (response behavior) and operant conditioning is individual behavior where one can influence their environment with behaviors which have consequences (operant behavior)

• Edward Thorndike: The Law of Effect, rewarded behavior is likely to recur
• B. F. Skinner: shaping - procedure in operant conditioning in which reinforcers guides behavior closer and closer towards a goal

-Reinforcer: any event that strengthens the behavior it follows

• 2 Types of Reinforcers: negative and positive
1. Positive Reinforcement - strengthens a response by presenting a stimulus after a response
2. Negative Reinforcement - strengthens a response by reducing or removing an aversive stimulus
• both are used to increase a desired behavior
• Primary Reinforcement - innately reinforcing stimulus
• Conditioned (Secondary) Reinforcer) - stimulus that gains its reinforcement power through tits association with a primary reinforcer
• Punishment - an event that decreases the behavior that it follows
• Positive Punishment: spanking, speeding ticket, sick after eating rotten food
• Negative: takeaway a to from a child after fighting with siblings, taking away treat from aggressive dog, grounding a misbehaving teen, in relationship, someone stops talking to another in response for the behavior
• Reinforcement Schedule
• Conditioned Reinforcement: reinforcing the desired response to every timeit occurs
• Partial Reinforcement: reinforcing a response only part of the time; acquisition process is sower, greater resistance to extinction

1. Fixed-Ratio Schedule: schedule that reinforces a response only after a specified number of responses; provide a reinforcement after a SET number of response
2. Variable-Ratio Schedule: schedule of reinforcement that reinforces a response after an unpredictable number of response; ex: lottery, slot machine, bingo; provides a reinforcement after RANDOM number of response
3. Fixed-Interval Schedule: schedule of reinforcement that reinforces a response only after a specified time has elapsed; requires a SET amount of time to elapse before giving reinforcement; ex: multiple choice quiz
4. Variable-Interval Schedule: schedule of reinforcement that reinforces a response at unpredictable time intervals; ex: pop quiz; requires a RANDOM amount of time to elapse to give reinforcement

• Token Economy: every time a desired behavior is performed, a token is given; can trade tokens in for a variety of prizes (reinforcers); sed in homes, prisons, mental institutes, and schools
• Observational Learning: Albert Bandura and his Bobo Doll;learn through modeling behavior from others; observational learning + operant conditioned = Social Learning Theory
• Latent Learning: Edward Toteman, sometimes learning is not immediately evident
• Insight Learning: Wolfgang Kholer and Chimpanzees, some animals learn through the"Ah Ha!" experience

Sleep:

- state of consciousness; we are less aware of our surroundings; conscious, subconscious, unconscious

- States of Consciousness: sleep, hypnosis, drugs

• Daydream: 1. helps us prepare for future events 2. can nourish our social development 3. can substitute for impulsive behavior
• Fantasy Prove Personalities: someone who imagines and recalls experiences with lifelike vividness and who spends considerable time fantasizing
• Biological Rhythms: annual cycle (seasoned variations: bear hibernation, seasonal affective disorder); 28 day cycle (menstrual cycle); 24-hr cycle (our circadian rhythm); 90 minute cycle (sleep cycle)
• Circadian Rhythm: 24-hr biological clock, body temperature and awareness changes throughout the day
• Sleep Stage: 5 identified stages of sleep; takes about 90-100 minutes to pass through 5 stages; brain's waves will change according to sleep stage you are in; first 4 stages are also known as NERM sleep; 5th stage is called REM sleep
• Stage 1: kind of awake and kind of asleep; only lasts a few minutes and you usually onle experience once a night; eyes begin to roll slightly; brain produces Theta waves (high amplitude, low frequency = slow)
• Stage 2: follows Stage 1 sleep and is the "baseline" of sleep; stage is part of the 90 minute cycle and occupies approximately 45-60% of sleep; more Theta waves that get progressively slower
• Stage 3 & 4: slow wave sleep, you produce Delta waves; if awoken you will be very groggy; vital for restoring body's growth hormones and good overall health; may last 15-30 minutes, is called "low wave sleep" because the brain activity slows down dramatically from the "theta" rhythm of Stage 2 to a much slower rhythm called "delta" and the height of amplitude of the wave increases dramatically; contrary to popular belief, it is called delta sleep that is the "deepest" stage of sleep (not REM) and the most restorative; delta sleep that a sleep-deprived person's brain craves first and foremost; in children, delta sleep can occupy up to 40% of all sleep time and this is what makes children unawakeable or "dead asleep" during most of the night
• Stage 5 (REM Sleep): Rapid Eye Movement, called paradoxical sleep; brain is very active, dreams usually occur in REM, body is essentially paralyzed; composed of 20-25% of a normal night's sleep; breathing, heart rate, and brain wave activity quicken; vivid dreams can occur, from REM to Stage 2
• Sleep Disorder:
• Insomnia - persistent problems of falling asleep; affects 10%of the population
• Narcolepsy - differ from sleeplessness and may fall asleep at unpredictable or inappropriate times; directly into REM sleep; less than .001% of population
• Sleep Apnea - person stops breathing during their sleep; wake up momentarily, gasps for air, then falls back asleep; very common, especially in heavy males; can be fatal
• Night Terrors - sleep disorder characterized by high arousal and an appearance of being terrified; occur in Stage 4, not REM, and are not often remembered
• Sleepwalking (somnambulism) - sleep disorder affecting an estimated 10% of al humans atleast once in their lives; most often occurs during deep non-REM sleep (stage 3 or stage 4 sleep) early in the night
• Dreams:
• sequence of images, emotions, and thoughts passing through a sleeping person's mind
• Manifest Content - remembered story line of a dream
• Latent Content - underlying meaning of a dream
• Why do we dream?
1. Freud's Wish-Fulfillment Theory: dreams are the key to understanding our inner conflicts, ideas,and thoughts that are hidden in our unconscious, manifest and latent content
2. Information-Processing Theory: dreams act to sort out and understand the memories that you experience that day; REM sleep does increase after stressful events
3. Activation-Synthesis Theory: during the night our brainstem releases random neural activity, dreams may be a way to make sense of that activity

Hypnosis: 

• Altered state of consciousness?
• Posthypnotic Suggestion
• Posthypnotic Amnesia

Dissociation Theory:

• Theory by Ernest Hilgard
• We voluntarily divided our consciousness up
• Ice Water Experiment
• We have a hidden observer, a level of us that is always aware

Role Theory: 

• Hypnosis is NOT an altered state of consciousness
• Different people have various states of hypnotic suggestibility
• A social phenomenon where people want to believe
• Works better on people with a richer fantasy life

State Theory:

• Hypnosis is an altered state of consciousness
• Dramatic health benefits
• It works for pain best

Perception Video

Sensation and Perception

- Sensation: your window to the world
- Perception: interpreting what comes in your window

• Sensation- process by which our sensory receptor and nervous system receive stimulus from the environment
• Bottom-Up Processing: begins with sense receptors and works up to brain's integration of sensory information
• Top-Down Processing: information processing guided by higher level mental processes
• Absolute Threshold: minimum stimulation needed to detect stimulus 50% of time
• Difference Threshold: minimum difference that the person can detect between 2 stimuli
• Just Noticeable Difference (JND): smallest detectable difference between a starting and secondary level of a particular sensory stimulus
• Weber's Law: idea that to perceive difference between 2 stimuli, they must differ by constant percentages; not a constant amount
• Signal Detection Theory: predicts how we detect a stimulus amid other stimuli
• Sensory Adaptation: decreased responsive to stimuli due to constant stimulation
• Example: don't need to feel if underwear is there or not
• Selective Attention: focusing of conscious awareness on a particular stimulus
• Cocktail-party Phenomenon: ability to focus one's listening attention on a single talker among a mixture of conversations and background noises, ignoring other conversations
• form of selective attention
• Vision: our most dominating sense
• height of a wave gives us its intensity (brightness)
• length of wave gives us its hue (color)
• longer the wavelength, the more red
• shorter the wavelength, the more violet
• Transduction: transforming signals into neutral impulses (Sky High); information goes from senses to the thalamus, then up to various areas of the brain
• Young-Helmholtz Trichromatic (3 color) Theory: 3 types of cones - red, blue, green; these types of cones can make millions of combinations of colors
• Opponent-Process Theory: sensory receptors come in pairs -
• red/green,
• yellow/blue
• black/white
• if one color is stimulated, others are inhibited
• Hearing: height of wave gives us amplitude of sound; frequency of wave gives us pitch of sound
• Transduction in the Ear: sound waves hit eardrum then anvil then hammer then stirrup then oval window, everything is just vibrating, then then the cochlea vibrates (cochlea is lined with mucus called basilar membranes), in basilar membrane there are hair cells, when hair cells vibrate they turn vibrations into neural impulses which are called organ of Corti, sent to thalamus up to the auditory nerve
• Place Theories: different hairs vibrate in the cochlea when there are different pitches, same hairs vibrate when they hear high pitches and others vibrate when they hear low pitches
• Frequency Theory: all hairs vibrate but at different speeds
• Deafness: 1. conduction deafness - something goes wrong with sound and vibration on the way to cochlea, can replace bones or get hearing aid to help   2. nerve (sensorineural) deafness - hair cells in the cochlea get damaged, loud noises can cause this type of deafness, NO WAY to replace hairs, cochlea implant is possible
• Smell and Taste:
• Sensory Interaction - principle that one sense may influence another
• Taste: we have bumps on the tongue called papillae, taste buds are located on the papillae (actually all over the mouth); sweet, salty, sour, bitter, spicy

• Umami: flavorful, meaty, savory taste
• Touch: receptors located in skin
• Gate Control Theory of Pain: spinal cord contains neurological gate that blocks pain signals or allows them to pass onto the brain
• Vestibular Sense: tells us where our body is orientated in space, our sense of balance
• Kinesthetic Sense: tells us where our body parts are, receptors located in our muscles and joints
• Perception: process of organizing and interpreting information, enabling us to recognize meaningful objects
• Gestalt Philosophy: whole is greater than the sum of its parts
• Figure-Ground Relationship: organization of visual field into object (figures) that stand out from their surroundings (ground)
• Grouping: perceptual tendency to organize stimuli into groups that we understand
• proximity, similarity, continuity, connectedness
• Depth Perception: ability to see objects in 3-D although images that strike the retina are 2-D; allows us to judge distance
• Binocular Cues: the closer an object comes to you, the greater the disparity is between the two images
• Monocular Cues: distance cues, such as linear perspective and overlap, available to either eye alone
• Interposition - if something is blocking our view, we perceive it is closer
• Relative Size - if we know that 2 objects are similar in size, the one that looks smaller is farther away
• Relative Clarity - we assume that hazy objects are farther away
• Texture Gradient - the coarser it looks, the closer it is
• Relative Height - things that are higher in our field of vision look farther away
• Relative Motion - things that are closer appear to move more quickly
• Liner Perspective - parallel lines seem to converge with distance
• Light and Shadow - the dimmer the object appears, the further away it seems because it reflects less light
• Motion Perception: judged mostly by size of object
• Phi Phenomenon: illusion of movement created when two or more adjacent lights blink on and off in succession
• Perceptual Consistency: perceiving objects as unchanging, even as the illumination and retinal images change

Thinking:
- Cognitions: term for knowing, thinking, and remembering
- Concepts: mental grouping of similar objects, events, ideas, or people; similar to Piaget's Schemas
- Prototypes: mental images or best example of categories; if new object is similar to prototype, we are able to recognize it

• Trial and Error:
• Algorithms - methodical, logical rule or procedure that guarantees solving a particular problem
• Heuristics - rule-of-thumb strategy that often allows us to make judgments and solve problems efficiently; short cut (prone to error)
• Insight - sudden and often novel realization of solution to problem; no real strategy involved
• Obstacles to Problem Solving:
• Confirmation Bias - tendency to search for information that confirms one's perceptions
• Fixation - inability to see a problem from a new perspective
• Mental Set - tendency to approach a problem in a particular way, especially if it has worked in the past; may or may not be a good thing
• Functional Fixedness - tendency to think of things only in terms of their usual functions
• Types of Heuristics (that often lead to error):
• Representativeness Heuristics - rule-of-thumb for judging the likelihood of things in terms of how well they match our prototype; can cause us to ignore important information
• Availability Heuristics - estimating the likelihood of events based on their availability in our memory; if it comes to mind easily (maybe a vivid event) we presume it is common
• Overconfidence - tendency to be more confident than correct; to overestimate the accuracy of your beliefs and judgments
• Framing - the way an issue is posed; can have drastic effects on your decisions and judgments
• Belief Bias - tendency for one's preexisting beliefs to distant logical reasoning; sometimes making invalid conclusions valid or vice versa
• Belief Perseverance - clinging to our initial conceptions after the basis on which they were formed has been discredited
• Artificial Intelligence

Language and Thought:
- our spoken writing or gestured words and the way we combine them to communicate meaning

• Phonemes: in a spoken language, the smallest distinctive sound unit
• Example: the word chug has 3 phonemes: ch, u , g
• Morphemes: in a language, the smallest unit that carries the meaning
• Example: it can be a word or a part of a word (prefix/suffix)
• Grammar: system of rules in a language that enables us to communicate and understand others
• Semantics: set of rules by which we derive meaning in a language
• Example: adding "-ed" at the end of words makes it past tense
• Syntax: rules for combining words into grammatically sensible sentences

• Language Development -
• Babbling Stage: starting at 3 - 4 months, infant makes spontaneous sounds; not limited to the phonemes of the infant's household language
• One-word Stage: 1 - 2 years old, uses one word to communicate big meanings
• Two-word Stage: at age 2, uses two words to communicate meanings, which are called Telegraphic Speech
• developed by Skinner - explained language development through social learning theory
• Chomsky - acquire language quickly for it to be learned; "learning box" inside leads that enables us to learn any human language
• Language Influence Thinking?
• Whorf's Linguistic Relativity: idea that language determines the way we think (not vice versa)
• Number of Language Make us Think Different?
• Thinking without Language: we can think in words, but more often in mental pictures
• Animals Think?
• Kohler's Chimpanzees: Kohler exhibited that Chimps can problem solve

Intelligence:
- ability to learn from experience, solve problems, and use knowledge to adapt to new situations; socially constructed thus can be culturally specific

• Factor Analysis: statistical procedures that identifies clusters of related items on a test; Charles Spearman used it to discover General Intelligence
• Multiple Intelligence: Howard Gardner agree with Spearman's General Intelligence and came up with Multiple Intelligence; idea that came about by studying savants (a condition where a person has limited mental abilities but exceptional in one area)
• Visual/Spatial
• Verbal/Linguistic
• Logical/Mathematics
• Bodily/Kinesthetic
• Musical/Rhythm
• Interpersonal
• Intrapersonal
• Natural
• Sternberg's 3 Aspects of Intelligence:
1. Analytical (academic problem solving)
2. Creative (generating novel ideas)
3. Practical (required for everyday tasks where multiple solutions exists)
• Emotional Intelligence: ability to perceive, express, understand, and regulate emotions
• Brain Functions and Intelligence: higher preforming brains use less active than lower preforming brains (less glucose used); neurological speed is a bit quicker
• Assessing Intelligence:
• Alfred Binet and Theodore Simon tried to figure out the concept of Mental Age (what a person of a particular age should know)
• discovered that by discovering someone's Mental Age they can predict future performance
• Terman using this study came up with the IQ test (aka the Stanford-Binet Test)
• Modern Tests of Mental Abilities:
• Wechsler's Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIs) - consists of 11 subtests and cues us in strengths by using Factor Analysis
• Aptitude v.s Achievement Tests:
• Aptitude - a test designed to predict a person's future performance; the ability for that person to learn (Example: SATs)
• Achievement - a test designed to assess what a person has learned (Example: AP tests)
• tests must be Standardized, Reliable, and Valid
• Standardized: test must be pre-tested to a representative sample of people and form a normal distribution or bell curve
• Flynn Effect - intelligence test performance has been rising
• Reliable: extent which a test yields consistent results over time; split halves or test-reset method
• Validity: extent to which a test measures what it is supposed to measure
• Content Validity - does the test sample a behavior of interest
• Predictive Validity - does the test predict future behavior
• Intelligence Over Time: at the age of 3, a child's IQ can predict adolescent IQ scores depending on the type of intelligence that's crystallized or fluid

Psychology on Baby Reactions

Biological School

The Nervous System: starts with an individual nerve cell called Neuron (a cell)

Nueroanatomy - neurotransmitter

• Cell Body - cell's life support center
• Dendrites - receive messages from other cells
• Axon - passes message away from the cell body to other neurons, muscles, or glands
• Myelin Sheath - covers axon of some neuron and helps spread neural impulses
• Neural Impulses - electrical signal travelling down axon
• Synapse - structure that permits a neuron to pass a chemical or electrical signal to another cell
• Resting Potential: slightly negative charge; reacts the threshold when enough neurotransmitters reach the dendrites
• Electrochemical Process: electrical inside neuron and chemical on the outside; the firing is called Action Potential
• All or None Response: idea that either the neuron fires or it does not- no part way firing; like a gun
• Neurotransmitter- chemical messenger released by terminal buttons through the synapse gaps
• 4 Types of Neurotransmitter:
1. Acetylcholine (ACH)- deals with motor movement and memory; lack of ACH has been linked to Alzheimer's Disease
2. Dopamine- deals with motor movement and alertness; lack of dopamine has been linked to Parkinson's Disease; too much has been linked to Schizophrenia
3. Serotonin- involved with mood control; lack of serotonin has been linked to clinical depression
4. Endorphins- involved in pain control; many of our most addictive drugs deal with endorphins
• Drugs can be...
• Agonists: make neurons fire
• Antagonists: stop neural firing
• 3 Types of Neurons:
1. Sensory (Afferent) Neurons: take information from the senses to the brain
2. Inter Neurons: take information to Sensory Neuron to other parts of the brain or to the Motor  Neurons
3. Motor (Efferent) Neurons: take information from the brain to the rest of the body

The Nervous System

• Central Nervous System: Brain and Spinal Cord
• Peripheral Nervous System: all nerves that are not encased in bone; everything but the brain and spinal cord; is divided into 2 categories:
1. Somatic Nervous System- controls voluntary muscle movement; use motor (efferent) neurons
2. Autonomic Nervous System- controls the autonomic functions of the body; divided into 2 categories:
1. Sympathetic Nervous System: Fight or Flight Response; automatically accelerates heart rate, breathing, dilates pupils, and slows down digestion
2. Parasympathetic Nervous System: automatically slows down the body after a stressful event; heart rate and breathing slow down, pupils constrict and digestion speeds up
• Reflexes: normally, sensory (afferent) neurons take information up through the spine to the brain; some reactions occur when sensory neurons reach just the spinal cord
• Lesions: cutting into the brain and looking for change
• Less Invasive Ways to study brain

Brain Structures
-some scientists divide the brain up into 3 parts: Hindbrain, Midbrain, Forebrain

• Hindbrain
1. Medulla Oblongata: heart rate, breathing, blood pressure
2. Pons: connects Hindbrain, Midbrain, and Forebrain together; involved in facial expressions
3. Cerebellum: located in the back of our head - means little brain; coordinates muscle movements; like tracking a target
• Midbrain - coordinates simple movements with sensory information; contains reticular formation; arousal and ability to focus attention
• Forebrain - Thalamus: receives sensory information and sends them to appropriate areas of the forebrain; like a switchboard; everything but smell

Limbic System: emotional control center of the brain, but plays a not so small role; made up of the hypothalamus, amygdala, and the hippocampus

• Hypothalamus: pea-sized in brain, but plays a not so small role; body temperature, hunger, thirst, and sexual arousal (libido)
• Hippocampus: involved in memory processing
• Amygdala: vital for our basic emotions

• Cerebral Cortex: top layer of our brain, contains wrinkles called fissures; fissures increase the surface area of our brain; laid out, it would be about the size of a large pizza
• Hemispheres: divided into left and right hemispheres
• contralateral controlled - left controls right side of the body, vice-versa
• lefties are better at spatial and creative tasks; righties are better at logic <-- (Brain Lateralization)
• Split-Brain Patients: Corpus Callosum attaches the hemispheres of the cerebral cortex; when removed, you have a split-brain patient --> you may die
• Cerebral Cortex:
• Frontal Lobe - abstract thought and emotional control
• Motor Cortex: sends signals to our body controlling muscles movement
• Broca's Area: responsible for controlling muscles that produce speech
• damage to the Broca's Area is called Broca's Aphasia: unable to make movements to talk
• Parietal Lobe -
• Sensory Cortex: receives incoming touch sensations from the rest of the body
• most parietal lobes are made up of Association Areas (are not associated with receiving sensory information or coordinating muscle movements)
• Occipital Lobe - deals with vision
• Visual Cortex: interprets messages from our eyes into images we can understand
• Temporal Lobe - process sensed by our ears
• Wernike's Area: interprets written and spoken speech
• Wernike's Aphasia: unable to understand language; syntax and grammar jumbled

Endocrine System:
- a system of glands that secrete hormones; similar to the nervous system, except hormones work a lot slower than neurotransmitters
The 5 Glands:

1. Thyroid glands: affects metabolism
2. Pituitary glands: secretes many different hormones
3. Adrenal glands: inner part is called the medulla, helps trigger the "fight or flight" response
4. Pancreas: regulates level of sugar in the blood
5. Ovary/Testis: secretes female sex hormones; secretes male sex hormones

Developmental Psychology:
- the study of YOU from birth to death; how we change physically, socially, and cognitively

• Nature: way you are born; Nurture: way you were raised
• Physical Development: focus on our physical changes over time
• Prenatal Development: conception begins with drop of egg and release of 200 million sperms -> sperm seeks eggs and attempts to penetrate egg's surface
• Zygote - first stage of prenatal development... lasts about 2 weeks and consists of rapid cell division; sperm penetrates egg -> fertilized egg is called zygote
• less than 1/2 of zygotes survive in the first 2 weeks
• 10 days after conception, zygote attaches itself to uterine wall
• outer part becomes placenta, which filters nutrients
• after two weeks develops into...
• Embryo - lasts as 6 weeks, heartbeat begins to beat and organs begin to develop
• by 9 weeks...
• Fetus - by 6 months, stomach and other organs have formed enough to survive outside of mother; at this time, baby can hear and recognize sounds and respond to light
• Teratogens: chemical agents that can harm prenatal environment, alcohol (FAS), other STDs cab harm baby, including HIV, Herpes, and Genital Warts
• Healthy Newborns... turn their heads toward voices, can see 8 - 12 inches from their faces, gaze longer at humanlike objects right from birth

Reflexes:
- inborn automatic responses: rooting, sucking, grasping, Babinski

• Rooting Reflex - baby's tendency to open their mouth to search for nipple

Maturation:
- physical growth, regardless of the environment; timing of growth is different, but the sequence is the same

• Puberty: period of sexual maturation, during which a person becomes capable of reproducing
• Primary Sexual Characteristics - body structures that make reproducing possible
• Ex: penis, testes, vagina, ovaries
• Secondary Sexual Characteristics - non-reproducing sexual characteristics
• Ex: wide hips, breast development, deep voice, body hair
• Landmarks for Puberty: menarche for girls; first ejaculation for boys (spermarche)
• Physical Milestone: menopause, time of natural cessation of menstruation; also refers to the biological changes a woman experiences as her ability to reproduce declines

Death, Elizabeth Kubler-Ross's Stages of Death/Grief:

1. Denial
2. Anger
3. Bargaining
4. Depression
5. Acceptance

Social Development:
-up until about a year, infants do not mind strange people (maybe cause everyone is strange to them)

• at one year, infants develop stranger anxiety
• Stranger Anxiety: fear of strangers that infants commonly display, beginning by about 8 months of age
• Separation Anxiety: child separated from parent

Attachment:

• Harry Harlow and the monkeys
• showed that monkeys needed touch to form attachment

• Critical Periods: optimal period shortly after birth when an organism's exposure to certain stimuli produces proper development
• those deprived of touch have trouble forming attachment when they are older
• Mary Ainsworth's Strange Situation:
1. Secure - comfortable with people who take care of you when parents are gone
2. Avoidant - upset that parents abandoned you
3. Anxious/Ambivalent - excited to see at first then cold shoulder... vice versa
• Parenting Styles:
1. Authoritarian - parents are in charge
2. Permissive - kids are in charge, "laissez-faire"
3. Authoritative - Parents and kids compromise
• Erik Erikson: Neo-Freudian, worked with Anne Freud; thought our personality was influenced by our experiences with others
• Stages of Development:
1. Trust v.s. Mistrust - Can you trust caregiver?; development can carry on with child for the rest of their lives
2. Autonomy v.s. Shame/Doubt - Can you learn control or do you doubt yourself?; toddlers begin to control bodies (potty training), control temper tantrums, "NO"
3. Initiative v.s. Guild - Is curiosity encouraged or scolded?; "NO" --> "WHY", want to understand world and asks questions
4. Industrial v.s. Inferiority - Do we feel good or bad about our accomplishments?; school begins, evaluated by formal systems and peers, can lead to us feeling bad about ourselves for the rest of our lives... inferiority complex
5. Identity v.s. Role Conclusion - Who am I and what group do I fit in?; try out different roles
6. Intimacy v.s. Isolation - What are my priorities?; have to balance work and relationships
7. Generality v.s. Stagnation - Is everything going as planned?; look back upon life and see if it was meaningful or regretful
• Cognitive Development:
1. Jean Piaget - thought kids were stupid versions of adults; kids learn differently than adults
• Schemas: child's view of world through schemas (as do adults); ways we interpret the world around us; basically what you would picture in your head when you think of anything
• Assimilation: incorporating new experiences into existing schemas
• Accommodation: changing an existing schemas to adapt to new information

1. Sensorimotor - experience world through senses, do NOT have object permanence; from 0 - 2 years
2. Preoperational Stages - have object permanence, begins to use language to represent object and ideas, egocentric (cannot look at the world through anyone's eyes but their own); from 2 - 7 years
• Conservation: idea that a quantity remains the same despite the changes in appearance and is part of logical thinking
3. Concrete Operational Stage - can demonstrate the concept of conservation, learn to think logically
4. Formal Operational Stage - abstract reasoning, manipulate object in mid without seeing them, hypothesis testing, trial and error, metacognition, not every adult gets to this stage
• What would the world look like with no light?
• Picture God
• What way do you best learn?

• Types of Intelligence:
1. Crystallized Intelligence: accumulated knowledge which increases with age
2. Fluid Intelligence: ability to solve problems quickly and think abstractedly, peaks in the 20's and then decreases over time

Moral Development:

• Three Stages by Lawrence Kohlberg

1. Pre-Conventional Morality: morality based on rewards and punishments, reward = OK, punishment = something wrong
2. Conventional Morality: look at morality based on how others see you, if peers, or society, thinks it is wrong, so do you
3. Post-Conventional Morality: based on self-defined ethical principles, you own personal self of ethics

Polygraph

Motivation and Emotion

Motivation - need or desire that energizes and directs behavior

• Instinct Theory: we are motivated by our inborn automated behaviors
• Drive Reduction Theory: idea that a physiological need creates an aroused tension state (a drive) that motivates an organism to satisfy the need
• homeostasis
• Pulled by Incentives: a positive or negative environmental stimulus that motivates behavior
• Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs: Abraham Maslow said we are motivated by needs, and all needs are not created equal; we are driven to satisfy lower level needs first
• Hunger - both physiological and psychological
• hunger does NOT come from our stomachs, it comes from our brain
• hypothalamus
• Hypothalamus:
• lateral - when stimulated it makes you hungry
• ventromedial: when stimulated you feel full
• Two Theories on Hypothalamus:
1. Leptin: a protein produced by bloated fat cells; hypothalamus senses rise in leptin and will curb eating and increase activity
2. Set Point: hypothalamus acts as a thermostat; we are meant to be in a certain weight range; when we fall below weight our body will increase hunger and decrease energy expenditure (Basic Metabolic Rate)
• Body Chemistry: glucose; hormone insulin converts glucose to fat; when glucose levels drop, hunger increases

Hormone:                                           Tissue:                                         Response:
Orexin Increase                                  Hypothalamus                             Increase hunger
Ghrelin Increase                                 Stomach                                      Increase hunger
Insulin Increase                                  Pancreas                                      Increase hunger
Leptin Increase                                   Fat Cells                                      Decrease hunger
PPY Increase                                      Digestive Tract                            Decrease hunger

• Psychology of Hunger: externals- people whose eating is triggered more by presence of food than internal factors
• Eating Disorders:
• Bulimia Nervosa - characterized by binging (eating large amounts of food) and purging (getting rid of the food)
• Anorexia Nervosa - starve themselves to below 85% of their normal body weight; see themselves as fat; vast majority are women
• Achievement Motivation
• Intrinsic Motivation: rewards we get internally, such as enjoyment or satisfaction
• Extrinsic Motivation: reward that we get for accomplishments from outside ourselves (grades, money, etc.)
• Theory X - manager believes that employees will work only if rewarded with benefits or threatened with punishment; think employees are extrinsically motivated; only interested in Maslow's lower needs
• Theory Y - manager believes that employees are internally motivated to do good and policies should encourage this internal motive; interested in Maslow's higher need

Emotion

• James-Lange Theory of Emotion: experience of emotion is awareness of physiological responses to emotion-arousing stimuli
• we feel emotion because of biological changes caused by stress
• body changes and our mind recognizes the feeling
• Cannon-Bard Theory of Emotion: emotion-arousing stimuli simultaneously trigger-
• physiological responses
• subjective experience of emotion
• Schachter's Two Factor Theory of Emotion: to experience emotion one must-
• be physically aroused
• cognitively label the arousal
• Lie Detectors
• Polygraph - machine commonly used in attempts to detect lies; measures several of the physiological responses accompanying emotion
• perspiration
• cardiovascular
• breathing changes
• Experience Emotion:
• Catharsis - "releasing" aggressive energy (through action or fantasy) relieves aggressive urges
• Feel-good, Do-good Phenomenon: people's tendency to be helpful when already in a good mood
• Adaption-Level Phenomenon: tendency to form judgments relative to a "neutral" level
• Relative Deprivation: perception that one is worse off relative to those with whom one compares oneself

Social Psychology

- the study of how we think about, influence, and relate to one another

• Social Thinking - How do we think about on another?
• Attribution Theory: idea that we give a casual explanation for someone's behavior; credit behavior either to situation or disposition
• Fundamental Attribution Error: tendency to underestimate the impact of a situation and overestimate the impact of personal disposition
• effects of attribution:
• a belief or feeling that predisposes one to respond in a particular way to something
• Foot-in-the-Door Phenomenon: tendency for people who have first agreed to a small request to comply later with a larger request
• Door-in-Face Phenomenon: tendency for people who say no to a huge request, to comply with a smaller one
• Cognitive Dissonance Theory: we do not like when we have either conflicting attitudes or when out attitudes do not match out actions
• it's bad for us, but we still do it
• Social Influence
• Conformity - adjusting one's behavior or thinking to coincide with a group standards
• Asch's Study
• Conditions to Strengthen Conformity -
1. one is made to feel incompetent
2. group is at least 3 people
3. group is unanimous
4. one admires the group's status
5. one had made no prior commitment
6. person is observed
• Reasons for Conformity -
1. Normative Social Influence: influence resulting from a person's desire to gain approval or avoid disappointment
2. Informational Social Influence: influence resulting from one's willingness to accept other's opinions about reality
• Obedience: Milgram's Experiments
• Social Facilitation: improved performance of tasks in the presence of others; occurs with simple tasks, not with tasks that are difficult
• Social Loafing: tendency for people in a group to exert less effort when pooling efforts toward a common goal than if they were individually accountable
• Deindividualization - loss of self-awareness and self-restraint occurring in a group situations that foster arousal and anonymity
• Group Polarization: concept that a group's attitude is one of extremes and rarely moderate
• Groupthink: mode of thinking that occurs when the desire for harmony in a decision-making group overrides common sense
• THE POWER OF AN INDIVIDUAL IS STRONGER THAN A GROUP'S!!
• Self-Fulfilling Prophecy: occurs when one person's belief about others leads one to act in ways that induce the others to appear to confirm the belief
• Social Relations
• Prejudice - unjustifiable attitude towards a group of people and involves stereotype beliefs
• Stereotype - a generalized belief about a group of people
• Social Inequalities: principle reason behind prejudice
• ingroup - "us" , people with whom one shares a common identity
• outgroup - "them" , those perceived as different than one's ingroup
• ingroup bias - tendency to favor one's own group
• Scapegoat Theory: theory that prejudice provides an outlet for anger by providing someone to blame
• Aggression - any physical or verbal behavior intended to hurt or destroy
• psychology of aggression:
• Frustration-Aggression Principle: blocking of an attempt to achieve some goal; creates anger which generates aggression
• Conflict - perceived incompatibility of actions, goals, or ideas; ex :Social Trap or Prisoner's Dilemma
• prisoner's dilemma: you don't know what your partner will say... probable outcomes
• Just World Phenomenon: belief that those who suffer deserve their fate
• Reciprocity Norm: HELP THOSE WHO HELPED YOU
• Social Responsibility: expectation that people will help those who depend on them
• Attraction:
1. Proximity: geographic nearness
• Mere Exposure Effect: repeated exposure to something breeds liking
• Mirror Image Concep
2. Reciprocal Liking: you are more likely to like someone who likes you
3. Similarity: birds of the same feather do flock together; similarity breeds content; opposites do NOT attract
4. Physical Attractiveness: predicts dating frequency (date more)
5. Love:
• Passionate Love - an arousal state of INTENSE positive absorption of another
• Compassionate Love - deep affectionate attachment we feel for those with whom our lives are intertwined; equality and self disclosure
6. Altruism: unselfish regard for the welfare of others
• Bystander Effect: bystanders are less willing to help if there are other bystanders around
7. Social Exchange Theory: idea that our social behavior is an exchange process, which we maximize benefits and minimize costs
8. Peacemaking: give people superordinate (shared) goals that can only be achieved through cooperation; win-win situations through meditation; GRIT (Graduated and Reciprocated Initiatives in Tension Reduction)

Research Method Video

Research Method

Research Methods:

• Hindsight Bias- tendency to believe, after learning the outcome, that you knew it all along
• overconfidence- tend to think we knew more than we do
• The Barnum Effect- tendency for people to accept very general or vague characterizations of themselves and take them to be accurate
• Applied v.s. Basic Research:

          - applied research has clear, practical applications; you can use it!
          - basic research explores questions that you may be curious about, but not intended to be immediately used

• hypothesis- expresses a relationship between two variables; variables can vary among participants in a study

          - independent variable: whatever is being manipulated in the experiment
          - dependent variable: whatever is being measured in the experiment

• Operational Definitions- explain what you mean in the hypothesis; how will the variables be measured in "real life" terms

Types of Research:

• Descriptive Research- describing what you see; any research that observes and records

1. Case Study: detailed picture of one or few subjects
2. Naturalistic Observation
3. Surveys: use interview, mail, phone, internet, etc... most common type; measures correlation; cheap and fast but has a low response rate

• Random Sampling- identify the population you want to study; sample must be representative of the population you want to study
• False Consensus Effect: tendency to overestimate extent to which others share our beliefs and behaviors
• Naturalistic Observation- in which you watch your subjects in their natural environments, do not manipulate the environment
• Hawthorne Effect: just the fact that you know you are in an experiment can cause change
• Correlational Method- expresses a relationship between two variables; does not show causation
• measured using correlation coefficient: a number that measures the strength of a relationship (-1 to +1); relationship gets weaker the closer you get to zero
• positive correlation: variables go in the SAME direction
• negative correlation: variables go in the OPPOSITE direction

Experimental Research:

• explores cause and effect of a relationship
• independent variable: manipulates, effect is being studied
• dependent variable: changes in response to independent variable, is measured

Experimental and Control Group:

• experimental: exposes participants to the treatment
• control: comparison for evaluating the effects

Experimental Methods:

• single blind study- subjects are unaware if assigned to experimental or control group
• double blind study- neither subjects nor experimenters know which group is control or experimental
• descriptive statistic: describes the results of research
• inferential statistic: used to make an inference or draw conclusion beyond the raw data
• central tendency- where does the center of the data tend to be?
• mode- most frequent occurring score in distribution
• mean- arithmetic average of scores in distribution
• median- middle score in rank-ordered in distribution
• range- difference between highest and lowest scores in distribution
• standard deviation: computed measure of how much scores vary around the mean
• high standard variation